Chapter 10 Displacing Indigenous Peoples

European Imperialism

From the eighteenth century onwards, European powers like France, Holland, and England significantly expanded their trading activities and established colonies in America, Africa, and Asia, in addition to England's virtual colonization of Ireland. This expansion was driven by the prospect of profit, but the nature of colonial control varied. In South Asia, trading companies like the East India Company evolved into political powers, annexing territories, retaining existing administrative systems for tax collection, and developing infrastructure like railways, mines, and plantations to facilitate trade. In Africa, Europeans initially traded on the coast, only venturing inland in the late nineteenth century, eventually dividing the continent among themselves through colonial agreements. The term 'settler' is used for Europeans in regions like South Africa, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, and America, where European languages, predominantly English (with French also official in Canada), became dominant.

Expansion of European Colonies

From the eighteenth century, European powers like France, Holland, and England expanded their influence beyond the initial Spanish and Portuguese colonies in South America, establishing trading activities and colonies across America, Africa, and Asia.

Types of Colonial Control

Colonial control varied: in South Asia, trading companies like the East India Company became political powers, annexing territories and collecting taxes. In Africa, Europeans initially focused on coastal trade before dividing the continent into colonies in the late nineteenth century.

Settler Colonies

Regions like South Africa, Ireland, New Zealand, Australia, and America are referred to as 'settler colonies' because European populations migrated and established significant settlements, often imposing their languages and administrative systems.

Names of Countries Given by Europeans

The names of many countries and geographical features in the Americas and Australia were given by European explorers, often reflecting their own languages, perceptions, or leaders, such as 'America' (after Amerigo Vespucci), 'Canada' (from a native word), 'Australia' (from Latin 'austral' meaning south), and 'New Zealand' (named after a Dutch sea).

North America

North America, a continent stretching from the Arctic Circle to the Tropic of Cancer and between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans, features diverse landscapes including deserts, mountains, vast plains, major river valleys, and extensive forests (especially in Canada). Immigrants from Europe, Africa, and China have developed industries, mining, and extensive agriculture in the last 200 years, leading to the growth of major economies in the USA and Canada. However, people had inhabited North America for thousands of years prior to European arrival, with earliest inhabitants migrating from Asia via a land bridge across the Bering Straits over 30,000 years ago. These indigenous peoples lived in bands and villages along river valleys, relying on hunting, fishing, and cultivating vegetables and maize. They developed sophisticated skills in craftwork, weaving, and understanding the land's climates and landscapes. Their societies were characterized by communal food production, cyclical views of time, oral traditions about origins, and a spiritual connection to the land, viewing it as sacred rather than a commodity to be owned. They formed alliances and exchanged gifts as a primary means of obtaining goods, rather than through market transactions. Europeans, arriving in the seventeenth century, initially engaged in trade for fish and furs, often finding the native peoples friendly and helpful. They exchanged goods like blankets, iron vessels, guns, and alcohol for local products. However, the Europeans' greed for profit and their addiction to tobacco, contrasted with the natives' simpler values and respect for nature, led to misunderstandings and exploitation.

The Native Peoples

The earliest inhabitants of North America migrated from Asia over 30,000 years ago. These indigenous peoples lived in diverse communities, speaking numerous languages, and subsisting through hunting, fishing, gathering, and agriculture.

Early Migrations and Settlements

The first peoples arrived from Asia via a land bridge across the Bering Straits during the last Ice Age, subsequently spreading across the continent and developing diverse ways of life based on local environments.

Native American Lifestyles and Beliefs

Native North Americans lived in bands and villages, often near rivers. They practiced communal living, hunting, fishing, and agriculture, without extensive cultivation or surplus production. They held spiritual beliefs about nature, viewed land as sacred, and valued alliances, gift exchange, and oral traditions over ownership and market economies.

Encounters with Europeans

Early European encounters, particularly with French traders in North America, were often friendly, involving the exchange of goods like blankets and iron tools for fish, furs, and handicrafts. However, the introduction of alcohol, to which natives became addicted, gave Europeans an advantage in trade negotiations.

Mutual Perceptions

Europeans often viewed natives as 'uncivilized,' 'primitive,' and lacking in imagination or emotion, contrasting with Rousseau's concept of the 'noble savage.' Native perceptions of Europeans were shaped by their generosity, but also by their greed, destruction of nature, and mistreatment of native peoples.

Impact of European Settlement

European settlement led to the displacement of native peoples from their lands, the disruption of their traditional economies and lifestyles, and the introduction of diseases that caused widespread death. Their perception of land as sacred conflicted with the European concept of land ownership and profit-driven agriculture.

The Native Peoples Lose Their Land

As European settlement expanded across North America, particularly in the USA, native peoples were systematically displaced from their ancestral lands. This process often involved treaties where natives were induced or forced to sell their land for prices far below its value, and instances of Americans cheating them by demanding more land or paying less than promised were common. Even high officials, like US President Andrew Jackson, disregarded judicial rulings, such as Chief Justice John Marshall's judgment that the Cherokee tribe held sovereignty over its territory. Jackson ordered the forced eviction of the Cherokees from Georgia to the Great American Desert, a tragic event known as the "Trail of Tears," where over a quarter of the 15,000 forcibly relocated people died. The justification for seizing native lands was often based on the argument that natives did not utilize the land to its maximum potential, were "lazy" for not producing for the market, and were "uncivilized" for not adopting European languages or customs. This perspective led to the extermination of bison, essential to native hunting traditions, and the clearing of prairies for European-style farming. Natives were pushed westward, often confined to small areas called "reservations," which were sometimes on lands with which they had no prior connection. Despite this relentless pressure, many tribes resisted through rebellions, such as those by the US army against native groups from 1865 to 1890 and the Metis rebellions in Canada (1869-1885), though ultimately these were suppressed.

Treaties and Cheating

Natives were often coerced into signing treaties to sell their ancestral lands for inadequate compensation, and frequently experienced deception by Americans regarding land acquisition and payment.

The Cherokee Removal and Trail of Tears

Despite a US Supreme Court ruling affirming Cherokee sovereignty, President Andrew Jackson ordered their forced removal from Georgia to the Great American Desert, a brutal process known as the "Trail of Tears," which resulted in the deaths of over a quarter of the Cherokee people.

Justification for Land Seizure

Europeans justified seizing native lands by claiming natives did not utilize the land efficiently, were lazy, and lacked "civilization" due to their differing cultural practices and economic systems.

Resistance and its Suppression

Native peoples resisted displacement through various means, including uprisings and armed revolts, but these were often crushed by the US army and Canadian authorities, leading to their eventual forced confinement to reservations.

The Gold Rush, and the Growth of Industries

The discovery of gold in California in the 1840s triggered the "Gold Rush," leading thousands of eager Europeans to America in hopes of quick fortunes. This influx spurred the construction of transcontinental railways, necessitating the recruitment of thousands of Chinese workers. By 1870, the USA's railway network was completed, followed by Canada's in 1885. The rapid industrialization in the USA was driven by different factors than in Britain; it focused on manufacturing railway equipment and machinery for large-scale farming. Industrial towns and factories proliferated, transforming the USA from an undeveloped economy in 1860 to the world's leading industrial power by 1890. Large-scale agriculture also expanded as vast areas were cleared for farms, leading to the near-extermination of bison by 1890, which ended the traditional hunting lifestyle of many native tribes. By 1892, the USA completed its continental expansion, dividing the land between the Pacific and Atlantic Oceans into states and eliminating the "frontier" that had attracted settlers westward. This expansion also led the USA to establish its own colonies, becoming an imperial power.

Impact of Gold Discoveries

The discovery of gold in California in the 1840s triggered the Gold Rush, leading to a massive influx of European immigrants and spurring the development of infrastructure like railways.

Development of Railways and Industries

The need for rapid transport to link distant regions and machinery for large-scale farming fueled industrial growth in the USA, transforming it into a leading industrial power by 1890.

Large-Scale Agriculture

Vast areas were cleared for farming, and the near-extermination of bison by 1890 marked the end of traditional native hunting practices, drastically changing the American landscape.

American Expansion and Imperialism

By 1892, the USA completed its continental expansion, and within years, began establishing its own colonies, signifying its emergence as an imperial power.

Constitutional Rights

The "democratic spirit," a core ideal of the American settlers during their fight for independence against Britain, became a defining characteristic of the USA, contrasting with the monarchies and aristocracies of Europe. Central to their identity was the constitutional guarantee of the "right to property," which the state could not override. However, these democratic rights, including the right to vote for representatives and the President, were initially limited to white men. Native American leader Daniel Paul highlighted in 2000 that Thomas Paine, a proponent of democracy, had used Native Americans as models for social organization, suggesting they indirectly sowed seeds for the broader democratic movement in Europe. Despite this, Native Americans were often denied the full exercise of their cultures and the benefits of citizenship, facing discrimination and systemic oppression.

Democratic Ideals vs. Native Rights

While the USA was founded on democratic ideals of liberty and individual rights, these principles were initially not extended to Native Americans, who were denied citizenship and faced oppression.

The Role of Thomas Paine

Thomas Paine, a key figure in the American Revolution, is noted for using Native American societies as models for social organization, potentially influencing the development of democratic thought in Europe.

Native Resistance and Recognition

Native peoples in both the USA and Canada resisted the erosion of their rights and traditions. While initial efforts to assimilate them failed, later developments, particularly from the 1970s onwards, saw a growing recognition of native cultures, sacred lands, and historical treaty rights, although many details remain to be fully addressed.

Australia

Australia's history of human habitation stretches back over 40,000 years, with indigenous peoples, collectively known as "aborigines," arriving from New Guinea. Their traditions suggest they have always been on the continent, with their past referred to as the "Dreamtime," a concept blurring past and present that is difficult for Europeans to grasp. In the late eighteenth century, Australia had between 350 and 750 distinct native communities, each with its own language, along with the Torres Strait Islanders in the north. Together, indigenous peoples constitute a small percentage of Australia's population. Australia's geography, largely arid desert in the center, led most towns to develop along the coast, where British settlers first arrived in 1770. The initial encounters between Europeans and natives were described as friendly, but this changed after Captain Cook was killed by a native in Hawaii, which the British used to justify subsequent violence against Australian aborigines. Many early settlers were convicts deported from Britain, who, upon completing their terms, settled in Australia and readily displaced natives from land for cultivation. The economic development of Australia under European settlement focused on vast sheep farms, mining, vineyards, and wheat farming. The formation of the Federation of Australia in 1901 unified the colonies, and Canberra was established as the capital in 1911. The "White Australia" policy, in effect until 1974, aimed to restrict non-white immigration. However, a shift occurred from the 1970s towards multiculturalism, with increasing recognition and respect for native cultures. The Australian High Court's Mabo decision in 1992 invalidated the concept of "terra nullius" (land belonging to no one) and recognized native land claims predating 1770. A National Sorry Day was established in 1999 to apologize for the historical injustice done to Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children forcibly removed from their families.

Long History of Aborigine Habitation

Indigenous peoples, known as aborigines, have inhabited Australia for over 40,000 years, originating from New Guinea and viewing their past through the concept of the "Dreamtime."

Diversity of Native Communities

Australia had numerous distinct native communities, each with its own language, and the Torres Strait Islanders in the north, forming a collective indigenous population of about 2.4% of Australia's total population in 2005.

European Arrival and Initial Encounters

British arrival in 1770 led to initial friendly encounters with natives, but this changed after an incident in Hawaii involving Captain Cook, which was used to justify subsequent violence against Australian aborigines.

Impact of British Settlement

Early British settlers, often convicts, readily displaced natives from their lands for cultivation, driven by the need to establish themselves in a new environment and lacking respect for native traditions or land rights.

Economic Development and Labour Practices

Australia's economy developed through sheep farming, mining, vineyards, and wheat farming. Native peoples were sometimes employed under harsh conditions, akin to slavery, and Chinese immigrants provided cheap labor until immigration was legally restricted.

Racial Policies and Multiculturalism

Australia's "White Australia" policy until 1974 aimed to limit non-white immigration. From the 1970s, a shift towards multiculturalism brought equal respect to native cultures alongside immigrant cultures.

Recognition of Native Rights and Apology for Past Wrongs

Recent decades have seen a growing recognition of native land rights (Mabo decision, 1992) and a public apology for the historical injustice of forcibly removing indigenous children from their families, acknowledging the sacredness of native lands.